Language immersion, or simply immersion, is a technique used in bilingual language education in which two languages are used for instruction in a variety of topics, including math, science, or social studies.The languages used for instruction are referred to as the L1 and the L2 for each student, with L1 being the native language of the student and L2 being the second language to be acquired through immersion programs and techniques. There are different contexts for language immersion, such as age of students, class time spent in the L2, subjects taught, and the level of participation by the native L1 speakers.
Although programs differ by country and context, most language immersion programs have the overall goal of promoting bilingualism between the two different sets of language speakers. In many cases, biculturalism is also a goal for speakers of the majority language (i.e. the language spoken by the majority of the surrounding population) and the minority language (i.e. the language that is not the majority language). Research has shown that these forms of bilingual education provide students with overall greater language comprehension and production of the L2 in a native-like manner; in addition to, greater exposure to other cultures and the preservation of languages, particularly heritage languages.
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Background
Traditionally, the term immersion has two distinct meanings with regards to bilingual education with the main difference being the overall goal of the educational instruction: fostering bilingualism within a group or simply focusing on the development of the L2 without preserving the L1. These different approaches to immersion education can be seen in the variety of bilingual immersion models and programs. The first use of the term immersion education, with the goal of fostering bilingualism, was used in a Canadian study outlining the French immersion education of native English L1 speakers. Within this program, native English L1 speakers were formally taught for two to three years in French before being formally taught in English. After a few years, English was incorporated into math, science, and other courses. The outcome for this style of education program was an even split in instruction in both languages by the end of elementary school.
Trends within the United States
In the past, the United States has not had a positive outlook on bilingual education. Towards the end of the 19th century, there was a large increase in immigrants arriving to the U.S. who spoke non-English languages that caused a new sense of nationalism and urgency to integrate immigrants into the American culture. Many early immersion programs subscribed to the sink-or-swim model, forcing students to learn in English without any instruction in their L1. In 1968, the Bilingual Education Act was enacted. This bill espoused a more tolerant perception of bilingual education as a whole, although more legislation would be needed to make bilingual education compulsory for schools instead of optional, see Lau v. Nichols.
Bilingual education in the U.S. and around the world has taken on a variety of different approaches outside of the traditional sink-or-swim model of full submersion in an L2 without assistance in the L1. According to the Center for Applied Linguistics, in 1971, there were only three immersion programs within the United States. As of 2011, there were 448 language immersion schools in the U.S. with the three main immersion languages of instruction being Spanish (45%), French (22%), and Mandarin (13%). The number of language immersion schools has increased in the United States from 1971 to 2011.
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Contexts
Age
According to Jim Cummins, immersion programs in Canada were initially implemented by age. Early immersion is when students begin learning the L2 around Kindergarten. Middle immersion is when students begin learning the L2 around 4th or 5th grade. Lastly, late immersion is when students begin learning the L2 around 7th or 8th grade.
Class Time
- In partial immersion, about half of the class time is spent learning subject matter in the foreign language. The goals are to become functionally proficient in the second language, to master subject content taught in the foreign languages, and to acquire an understanding of and appreciation for other cultures, but to a lesser extent than complete immersion. In 1997, approximately 60% of immersion programs in the United States were partial.
- In complete immersion, almost 100% of class time is spent in the foreign language. Subject matter taught in foreign language and language learning per se is incorporated as necessary throughout the curriculum. The goals are to become functionally proficient in the foreign language, to master subject content taught in the foreign languages, and to acquire an understanding of and appreciation for other cultures. This type of program is usually sequential, cumulative, continuous, proficiency-oriented, and a part of an integrated grade school sequence. Even after this type of program, the language of the curriculum may revert to the first language of the learners. In addition, in 1997, the remaining 40% of immersion programs in the United States were complete.
Type of Instruction
- In foreign language experience or exploratory (FLEX) programs, students are exposed to a different language(s) and culture(s) in the classroom. A small percentage of class time is spent sampling one or more languages and/or learning about language; therefore, proficiency in the target language is not the primary goal. The goals of the program are to develop careful listening skills, cultural and linguistic awareness, and interest in foreign languages for future language study, as well as to learn basic words and phrases in one or more foreign languages.
- In foreign language in the elementary schools (FLES) programs, students focus on listening, reading, writing and speaking in the target language. In contrast to FLEX programs, proficiency in the target language is the primary goal, whereas a secondary goal is to expose students to the foreign language's culture.
- In submersion programs, bilingual students generally receive all of their instruction in their L2. These programs are often referred to sink-or-swim programs because there is little support for the students' L1.
- In two-way immersion programs, also called dual- or bilingual immersion, the student population consists of speakers of two or more languages. Two-way immersion programs in the United States promote L1 speakers of a language other than English to maintain that language as well learning English as a second language (ESL). In addition, these programs allow L1 speakers of English to be immersed in a "foreign language acquisition environment."
- In early-exit programs, bilingual students transition from a bilingual program to a mainstream classroom at an early age (around 7 or 8 years old). These programs are supported by the belief that bilingual children will benefit the most from transitioning into a mainstream classroom at the earliest age possible.
- In late-exit programs, bilingual students transition from a bilingual program to a mainstream classroom at a later age (around 10 or 11 years old). These programs are supported by the belief that bilingual children will do better academically from being supported in both languages.
Location
People can also relocate temporarily to receive language immersion. This type of immersion occurs when a person moves to a place within their native country or abroad where their native language is not the majority language of that community. For example, Canadian anglophones go to Quebec (see Explore, and Katimavik) while Irish anglophones go to the Gaeltacht. Many times this involves a homestay with a family who speaks only the target language. Children whose parents immigrate to a new country also find themselves in an immersion environment with respect to their new language.
Study abroad can also provide a strong immersion environment to increase language skills. However, there are a variety of factors that can affect immersion during study abroad, including the amount of foreign language contact during the program. In order to positively impact competence in the target language, Celeste Kinginger notes that research about language learning during study abroad suggests "a need for language learners' broader engagement in local communicative practices, for mindfulness of their situation as peripheral participants, and for more nuanced awareness of language itself."
Outcomes
Studies have shown that students who study a foreign language in school, especially those who start in elementary school, tend to receive higher standardized test scores than students who have not studied a foreign language in school. Students who study foreign languages also tend to have increased mental capabilities such as creativity and higher order thinking skills (see Cognitive advantages of bilingualism), and have advantages in the workplace as employers are increasingly seeking workers with knowledge of different languages and cultures. Bilingual immersion programs are intended to foster proficiency or fluency in multiple languages and therefore maximize these benefits. Even cases in which fluency in the desired language is not fully attained, bilingual immersion programs provide a strong foundation for fluency later in life and help students gain appreciation of languages and cultures that are not their own.
There are no long-term adverse affects of bilingual education on the learning of the majority language, regardless of whether the students' first language (L1) is a majority or a minority language or the organization of the educational program. Several observed outcomes of bilingual education are: the transfer of academic and conceptual knowledge across both languages, greater success in programs that emphasize biliteracy as well as bilingualism, and better developed second language (L2) literary skills for minority students than if they received a monolingual education in the majority language.
Language immersion programs with the goal of fostering bilingualism, of which Canada's French-English bilingual immersion program is one of the first, initially report that students receive standardized test scores that are slightly below average. This was true in Canada's program, but by the fifth grade there was no difference between their scores and the scores of students instructed only in English. The English spelling abilities matched with those of the English-only students not long after. Ultimately, students did not lose any proficiency in English and were able to develop native-like proficiency in French reading and comprehension; but, they did not quite reach native-like proficiency in spoken and written French. However, this immersion program is seen as providing a strong foundation for oral French fluency later in life, and other similar programs that might not fully reach their projected goals can also be seen in the same light.
Programs with the goal of preserving heritage languages, such Hawaii's language immersion program, have also reported initial outcomes of below average test scores on standardized tests. However, it is possible that these low test scores were not caused by purely language-related factors. For example, there was initially a lack of curriculum material written in the Hawaiian language and many of the teachers were inexperienced or unaccustomed to teaching in Hawaiian. Despite initial drawbacks, the Hawaiian program was overall successful in preserving Hawaiian as a heritage language, with students in the program being able to speak the Hawaiian language fluently while learning reading, writing, and math skills taught in that language.
Partial immersion programs do not have an initial lag in achievement like Canada's and Hawaii's programs do, but it must be noted that partial immersion programs are not as effective as complete immersion programs and students generally do not achieve native-like proficiency in their L2.
Cases by Country
Canada
As of 2009, about 300,000 Canadian students (or roughly 6% of national school population) were enrolled in immersion programs. In early immersion, L1 English speakers are immersed in French education for 2 to 3 years prior to formal English education. This early exposure prepares Canadian L1 English speakers for the 4th grade, the year in which they are instructed in English 50% of the time and French the other 50%.
United States
In the United States, and since the 1980s, dual immersion programs have grown for a number of reasons: competition in a global economy, a growing population of second language learners, and the successes of previous programs. Language immersion classes can now be found throughout the US, in urban and suburban areas, in dual-immersion and single language immersion, and in an array of languages. As of May 2005, there were 317 dual immersion programs in US elementary schools, providing instruction in 10 languages, and 96% of programs were in Spanish.
Hawai'i
The 1970s marks the beginning of bilingual education programs in Hawai'i. The Hawaiian Language Program was geared to promote cultural integrity by emphasizing native language proficiency through heritage language bilingual immersion instruction. By the year 1995, there were 756 students enrolled in the Hawaiian Language Immersion Program from grades K-8. This program was taught strictly in Hawaiian until grades five and six where English is introduced as the language of instruction for one hour a day. The Hawaiian Language immersion Program is still in effect today for grades K-12. With an emphasis on language revival, Hawaiian is the main medium of instruction until grade five when English is introduced, but does not usurp Hawaiian as the main medium of instruction.
Mexico
A study done by Hamel (1995) highlights a school in Michoacan, Mexico that focuses on two bilingual elementary schools where teachers built a curriculum that taught all subjects, including literature and mathematics, in the children's L1: P'urhepecha. Years after the curriculum was implemented in 1995, researchers conducted a study comparing L1 P'urhepecha students with L1 Spanish students. Results found that students who had acquired L1 P'urhepecha literacy performed better in both languages--P'urhepecha and Spanish--than students who were L1 Spanish literate.
New Zealand
New Zealand shows another instance of heritage bilingual immersion programs. Established in 1982, full Maori language immersion education has strictly forbidden the use of English in classroom instruction, even though English is typically the L1 of students entering the program. This has created challenges for educators because of the lack of tools and underdeveloped bilingual teaching strategy for the Maori language.
Malawi and Zambia
A study done by Williams (1996) looked at the effects bilingual education had on two different communities in Malawi and Zambia. In Malawi, Chichewa is the main language of instruction and English is taught as a separate course. In Zambia, English is the main language of instruction and the local language Nyanja is taught as a separate course. Williams' study took children from six schools in each country who were all in grade 5. Then, he administered two tests: an English reading test, and a mother-tongue reading test. One result showed that there was no significant difference in English reading ability between the Zambian and Malawian school children. However, there were significant differences in the proficiency of mother tongue reading ability. The results of the study showed that Malawian grade 5 students performed better in their mother-tongue, Chichewa, than Zambian children did in their mother tongue, Nyanja.
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